Science

Mark Wilson

Revision History
Revision 3 5 May 2012

Remove course proctor name from exam body.

Revision 2 16 February 2009

Changed course proctor to Peter Hinton-Smith

Revision 1 19 September 2005

Added to the Library


Table of Contents

Introduction
Chemistry
Atoms
Bonding
Law of Conservation
Biology
Organic Molecules
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Cells
Cell Organelles
Transport in the Cell
Living Things
Physics
Newton's Laws
Gravity
Movement of Objects
Relativity
Astronomy
Heavenly Bodies
Galaxies
Stellar Phemonena
Role Playing
Exam
Fill-in-the-Blank
Multiple Choice
Essay Questions

Introduction

Welcome to the STF Academy Science course. The goal of the course is to give you a quick insight to the science field. The topics covered in this course are Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Astronomy. Also covered is the roleplaying aspect of a Star-Fleet science officer.

Chemistry

Atoms

The world we see is only a fraction of what really exists in the universe. What our eyes fail to pick up is the existence of very small things, the building blocks of everything in the universe -- atoms.

Atoms are the smallest part of an element that still retain the uniqueness of that element. They are made of three basic things -- protons, neutrons, and electrons. These three subatomic particles are made of still smaller things called quarks.

Both protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, or center, of the atom. Protons carry a positive charge, while neutrons carry none at all. Electrons are not found in the nucleus; they orbit it, ready to bond with electrons from other atoms. Electrons carry a negative charge. The amount of protons in a stable atom, or a pre-reaction atom, is equal to the amount of electrons. Electrons are arranged in layers, called shells, on the outside of an atom. Think of several concentric circles, and each electron as a point on one of the circles.

Sometimes, an atom is called an element. An element is a specific kind of atom, arranged in a specific way. Hydrogen is an element. It has one proton, one electron, and no neutrons. Gold is also an element. It has 79 protons and electrons, and 118 neutrons. The difference in the amount of protons, electrons, and neutrons is what makes each element unique.

All known elements are listed on a very useful device known as the Periodic Table of the Elements. On this table, elements are listed according to atomic number (how many protons they have), their atomic weight (the weight of the matter at the nucleus of an atom), and what types of elements they are (alkali metals, transition metals, alkali earth metals, other metals, nonmetals, noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides). New elements are constantly being added to the table, mostly in the form of artificially-discovered isotopes that exist for a few seconds, if that.

To find out how many neutrons an atom has, simply subtract the atomic number from the atomic weight.

Speaking of isotopes, an isotope is a different form of an element. If an element has one proton and one electron, it is an atom of hydrogen - no other element has one proton and one electron. If a neutron is added, the element no longer becomes hydrogen, but deuterium. Since the element has one proton and one electron, though, effectively giving some of the qualities of hydrogen, it is an isotope of hydrogen.

When two or more different kinds of atoms join together, the result is a molecule. A molecule is the building block of the compound. Some common molecules are those of water (two atoms of hydrogen, one of oxygen), carbon dioxide (one carbon atom, two oxygen atoms), and salt (one atom of sodium, one atom of chlorine).

Two or more molecules put together is called a compound. Some everyday compounds are water (H20), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and sugar (C6H12O6).

Bonding

When atoms bond to form compounds, the whole atom is not involved. Instead, it is the electrons on the very outside shell that form bonds with electrons from the outer shells of other atoms. There are three different kinds of bonds -- ionic, where the two electrons bond with no sharing of electrical charge, non-polar covalent (the electrons share the charge), and polar covalent (the electrons share, but the larger one receives more of the charge for a longer amount of time).

An atom that has a positive or negative charge is said to be an "ion." Normally, atoms have no charge, as the amount of protons and electrons are equal and they cancel each other out. When an atom gives up or accepts more electrons, it becomes either positive or negative. The amount of positive or negative charge an atom has is called its valence.

Law of Conservation

A very important rule when dealing with chemistry is the rule of conservation of atoms. It stipulates that in a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed. All of the atoms remain in existence, they may merely be free atoms now, or in combination with other atoms. The main point is that chemical reactions do not create or destroy atoms. Nuclear reactions, however, are a different case.

Biology

Organic Molecules

The lives of all living things would cease to exist if not for four very important kinds of molecules, called organic molecules or bio-molecules.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the first, and least important, kind of bio-molecule. The base compound of a carbohydrate is the monosaccharide. It is important to remember that when dealing with any kind of bio-molecule that breaking an atomic bond releases energy, and creating an atomic bond uses energy.

When many saccharides combine, they form a polysaccharide. This can be a chain of thousands of carbon atoms that takes hours for the body to break. Carbohydrates are the things an organism digests first.

Lipids

Lipids are the next-highest kind of bio-molecule. They store large amounts of energy due to their double carbon bonds and look like a branched ladder. Lipids are used primarily as stored energy, as it is easier and more cost-effective to use carbohydrates first.

Proteins

There is perhaps, no more important bio-molecule than the protein. Not only does it effectively repair the body and facilitate transport through cells, it is responsible for breaking things down and building them up. Proteins at their most important come in the form of enzymes that cause chemical reactions to happen faster or slower. It is enzymes (proteins) that are responsible for food digestion. Without enzymes, it would take 1,000 years to successfully digest your lunch.

Nucleic Acids

These bio-molecules form the very backbone of our existence -- DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids in DNA come in the form of four kinds of chemical bases, called nucleotides (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine), that pair in the following ways: A-T or C-G. The different combinations of these bases are endless when there are thousands of them on a single strand of DNA. RNA is much the same, except that it has the base uracil instead of thymine. It bonds with adenine.

Cells

Cells are "the building block of life," the smallest part of a living thing that can still be considered "alive." In the average human adult, there are an estimated 6 trillion cells of varying shapes and functions. It is in cells that energy production takes place and where wastes are disposed of.

Cell Organelles

"Organelles" is the term applied to the sub-cellular structures inside the cell that perform the cell's duties. Here is a list of organelles, with a brief description of each:

Ribosomes

These small, spherical organelles produce proteins.

Nucleus

The nucleus lies roughly at the center of the cell, and is the storage facility for the DNA. It is referred to as the "control center" of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The "highway" of the cell, where monosaccharides are transported around the cell.

Golgi Bodies, Golgi Complex

These terms refer to the organelle that packages nutrients for storage or for shipping to another cell. It is the UPS of the cell.

Mitochondria

The powerhouse, processing molecules to make energy (the process of making energy is a very complex one).

Cell membrane

Also called a plasma membrane, this is the layer that protects the cell, holds in the cytoplasm, and allows transport (next lesson). Proteins are embedded in the cell membrane, and serve as doormen, allowing only certain molecules in, and helping molecules that need assistance.

Cytoplasm

The Jell-O like fluid in which resides the organelles. The cytoplasm stretches from the membrane to the nucleus.

Lysosome

Its root word sounds like "Lysol," the cleanser, and that's exactly what this organelle does -- it removes waste products from the cell.

Vacuole

A vacuole is just a large storage container. In plant cells, vacuoles are huge and filled with water.

Cell wall

This structure is found only in plants and adds an extra layer of rigidity to the cell. The bark of trees is nothing more than trillions of cell walls.

Chloroplast

This structure is also only found in plant cells. The chloroplast is responsible for photosynthesis, changing sunlight to chlorophyll. It is believed that the chloroplast and mitochondria evolved along somewhat the same lines.

Transport in the Cell

In order for the cell to utilize nutrients, they must first be moved into the cell. Small molecules (monosaccharides) can move across the semi-permeable cell membrane in the process of diffusion. When one of the proteins in the membrane helps a molecule across the membrane, it is called facilitated diffusion. Water moves across the membrane in the process of osmosis. Both these kinds of transport are passive transport systems, meaning that no energy is required to move the molecules across the membrane, since the molecules are moving from a high to low concentration (like going downhill -- no energy needed). Active transport refers to any kind of movement across the cell that requires energy. Energy is needed because the concentration of molecules goes from low to high (like going uphill -- oops, energy is needed).

Living Things

It is generally accepted that things are living if:

  1. They have the ability to grow and develop.

  2. They have the ability to reproduce.

  3. They have the ability to use energy.

  4. They have cells.

  5. They have the ability to adapt.

In order for things to be considered alive, they must meet all of the above characteristics. It is also understood, though, that as new lifeforms are encountered, they may not meet all of the above criteria. In this case, it is up to the science officer to determine whether or not something is living.

Physics

The only laws in the universe that are absolute are the laws of physics. The Earth scientist Sir Isaac Newton devised three Laws of Motion that have become the basis for the understanding of physics.

Newton's Laws

  1. An object at rest tends to stay at rest; an object in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted upon by another force.

  2. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

  3. An object experiences motion because energy is transferred from one object to another.

The force described in law 1 is inertia. Inertia is an object's tendency to stay at rest or in motion. The larger the object, the greater the inertia, both ways. If you are pushing a heavy box up a hill, more energy is required to put the box in motion. Once in motion, the box is easy to push or pull. If it slides down the hill, it is hard to stop because it is already in motion (although gravity plays a part in its motion down the hill).

The "other force" described in law 1 is friction. Friction is what causes objects to eventually slow down and stop. It occurs when two surfaces contact each other, and does happen with air (when it happens with air it is known as "drag"). An object only continues to move in a vacuum, such as in space, where there is no air and no friction.

Gravity

Gravity is a universal phenomenon, felt even in space. On a planet, gravity pulls all objects toward the center of the planet, effectively keeping them on the ground. It is not limited to this definition, however. Gravity is a force exerted by objects upon other objects that causes two objects to attract to one another.

Movement of Objects

All objects have something called "momentum," the product of mass multiplied by velocity. Mass is the overall size of an object - its weight and size measurements (a bowling ball has more mass than a tennis ball). Velocity is an object's speed.

The Earth philosopher Aristotle first posed the idea that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones. The renaissance scientist Leonardo da Vinci thought that objects fell in proportion to the distance they have fallen, but it wasn't until the 17th century that astronomer Galileo Gaileli got it right - small and heavy objects fall at the same speed. The proportion is how long objects have been in the air. When objects have been in the air for a long time, only then do heavier objects' momentum begin to act and they land before lighter objects.

Relativity

In the 1930s, Albert Einstein proposed that space was curved and because of this, light also curved. This was his general theory of relativity. His special theory, known widely because of its application to warp power, is that energy = matter times the speed of light squared (E=MC2). It means that as one gets closer to the speed of light, energy consumption increases along with the momentum of the matter going at the speed of light.

An offshoot of Einstein's special theory is that, as objects approach the speed of light, time begins to slow down for them because they are going so incredibly fast. As a result, an object at near-light speed can be in motion for a year while it seems that dozens of years have passed to an object at "normal" speed. This is why impulse power is limited to 0.25c or at the most, 0.5c and why starships do not travel for extended time at impulse speed. Traveling any faster at sublight, or for longer amounts of time, will result in an increased time dilation effect.

Astronomy

Astronomy is the study of space, and this is the duty of most science officers. It is important to understand the basics of astronomy - planets, stars, black holes, since these are the things you will encounter.

Heavenly Bodies

Planets, stars, and other solid stellar phenomena are lumped together into this category. Planets are dense balls of matter that have gravity, a core, and can sometimes support life. They do not produce their own power. Planets range in size from the small Pluto to the giant Jupiter, which could have been a star.

A star is a huge ball of gases that uses the process of fusion (covered in the Engineering course) to create energy. A star's immense gravity sometimes pulls planets, asteroids, and comets into its orbit, creating a solar system. There are two classifications of stars - by size and by luminance. In ascending order, the sizes of stars are dwarf, main sequence, giant, and supergiant. Their luminance scale is, in ascending order, red, yellow, blue, and white. Stars adopt the Bell curve - a small amount are red dwarfs, a small amount are white supergiants, but most are yellow and blue medium-sized stars. These medium-class stars are referred to as main sequence stars.

At the end of a large star's life, it uses up the remainder of its fuel in a split-second and explodes with the power of and luminance of thousands of Earth suns. This explosion, which can and does destroy solar systems, is called a supernova. Smaller stars do not go nova; they swell up to a larger size and cool down or turn into planet-sized stars called white or black dwarfs.

Galaxies

Galaxies are large collections of solar systems that are millions of light-years in diameter. Galaxies are classified into three types: spiral (the Milky Way) elliptical (the Andromeda galaxy), and irregular (the Magellanic cloud). Galaxies that are neither spiral nor elliptical fit into the irregular category. It is estimated that there are 100 billion galaxies in our universe.

At the edge of the Milky Way galaxy is a large energy barrier called the Galactic Barrier. In 2265, Captain Kirk and the USS Enterprise crossed this barrier, causing a mutation with one of the crew members. It is advised that ships do not cross this barrier.

Equally dangerous is the Great Barrier, an energy barrier surrounding the center of the galaxy. Captain Kirk crossed this barrier in 2285 with the Enterprise-A. What he find inside was a malevolent, but powerful, creature that attempted to commandeer the ship by posing as God. The being was destroyed, but it is unknown if others like him exist. Crossing the Great Barrier is also inadvisable.

Stellar Phemonena

Pulsars are the remains of stars that have not gone nova. They shine with the luminance of millions of suns and are the most distant objects known to man.

Black holes are also the remains of stars that have not gone nova, but rather done the opposite. The star has condensed into a super-dense ball of matter a few miles wide. So dense is it, though, that its gravity is immense and not even light can escape. Its existence is known, though, due to massive amounts of gamma radiation that are emitted from the black hole. Upon entering a black hole, matter is pulled apart atom by atom. No one knows what lies beyond a black hole. Scientists speculate that it is probably a gateway to another universe or dimension.

A wormhole is a passage through space, first conceived of by Earth scientist Dr. Steven Hawking. Most wormholes are unstable, their endpoints shifting constantly through space. The only stable worm hole is in the Alpha Quadrant, several hundred kilometers from Bajor. It was created by that planet's Prophets and leads to the Gamma Quadrant.

Role Playing

The life of a science officer is not easy. Most often, they are stuck with duties like OPS (yes, Data was a science officer) until something comes along that requires analysis. In space, nothing conforms to any set definition - a lifeform may be discovered that does not adhere to the definition of life, but it is most obviously living.

It is important that you have a general understanding of all the terms and concepts presented in this class, as your commanding officer will want to know exactly what it is that your ship has encountered. If you're not sure, don't pretend you know, as this will only lead to problems later. Speculate! Say, "My hypothesis is . . ." or "It's too early to gain a definitive answer, but I believe that . . ."

Launch probes to gather interstellar data. Work with the medical department to gather information about horrible infections. Use the laboratories on board to analyze different kinds of goo. Delegate - always delegate! A science officer, in a crisis situation, cannot handle everything at once, which is why there are junior officers to assist you.

When it comes to RPGing, don't be afraid to make conclusions. Don't wait for the GM to tell you what it is you've found, say what it is. At the worst, the GM will issue a nullified post order. It's never a crime to be too creative, but being under-creative is what keeps people at the sci-5 position.

Don't rely on the concepts of this class as your only source of scientific information. This is just a basic-level class; it's a lot like a liberal arts science class - we cover a lot of subject matter, but depth is sacrificed for quantity. Entire books have been written about cell structure and function and protein production. Stephen Hawking covered the contents of our astronomy class in the first few pages of A Brief History of Time. The stuff here is introductory material. Look at some science books, pay attention in science class. The GM probably knows a thing or two about real science, and if you know more, you can outfox him and come up with solutions the GM didn't think of.

The CSO is usually on an Away Team, so he should be ready for anything at all times.

Exam

Submission Instructions

  1. Write out your answers to the questions below.

  2. E-mail them to the course proctor

  3. Be sure to include your full name at the top of the e-mail!

  4. Do not send the original question, just the answers.

  5. Do not send your answers as an attachment. Send them in the body of the e-mail.

  6. Do not use "HTML-enriched" e-mail. It makes it harder to grade.

  7. All answers must be original. Do not simply copy and paste from the lessons.

Fill-in-the-Blank

  1. The smallest unit of an element that still has the characteristics of that element is a(n) ____________________.

  2. All livings things are made of ____________________.

  3. Stars that are yellow or blue and medium-sized are called ____________________ stars.

  4. ____________________ are the first source of energy for living organisms.

  5. ____________________ developed the theory that space was curved.

  6. Stars produce their power through the process of ____________________.

  7. DNA and RNA are made of ____________________.

  8. When two atoms share energy, the bond is called a(n) ____________________ bond.

  9. Two or more different atoms produce a ____________________.

  10. The ____________________ states that, in a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

  11. Germanium has an atomic weight of 72.59 and an atomic number of 32. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there (round to the nearest whole number)?

Multiple Choice

  1. The scientist who developed the Laws of Physics was

    1. Albert Einstein.

    2. Sir Isaac Newton.

    3. Werner Heisenberg.

  2. Galileo believed that objects fall in relation to

    1. their size.

    2. the distance they have fallen.

    3. the time they have been in the air.

  3. The barrier that marks the entrance to the center of the Galaxy is

    1. The Galactic Barrier.

    2. The Great Barrier.

    3. The Central Barrier.

  4. Newton's 1st Law states that "objects at rest tend to stay at rest." What force is he talking about?

    1. gravity.

    2. friction.

    3. inertia.

  5. The nucleic acid base adenine can only pair with the nucleic acid base

    1. cytosine.

    2. uracil.

    3. thymine.

  6. An atom that has a charge is said to be a(n)

    1. ion.

    2. molecule.

    3. bi-polar atom.

  7. An example of an irregular galaxy is

    1. the Milky Way.

    2. the Magellanic Cloud.

    3. Andromeda.

  8. The cell organelle responsible for producing proteins is the

    1. ribosome.

    2. lysosome.

    3. endoplasmic reticulum.

  9. The element Helium has 2 protons. How many electrons does it have?

    1. 8.

    2. 4.

    3. 2.

  10. A bond where atoms do not share energy is called a(n)

    1. polar covalent bond.

    2. ionic bond.

    3. non-polar covalent bond.

  11. In facilitated diffusion, molecules go from what kind of concentration to what kind of concentration?

    1. low to high.

    2. medium to low.

    3. high to low.

Essay Questions

These questions deal with situations that you may have to face (or others have faced in the past). Submit your answer so that you completely answer the question and solve the problem. Some questions do not have a definitive answer; you must explain your reasoning as best you can.

  1. The starship USS Compaq has entered an area of space where there are no visible stellar phenomena. Sensors are picking up high levels of gamma radiation and radio waves that do not seem to come from any visible source. What is the phenomenon and what should be your recommendation?

  2. The USS Gateway has received reports that the blue dwarf star Gamma Epsilon has increased in size over the course of two years. The captain suspects a supernova and has ordered the evacuation of the only inhabited planet, Gamma Epsilon IX. Is the captain correct? If he is not, what is the correct phenomenon and what actions should be taken?

  3. The crew of the USS Hewlett-Packard has encountered a microscopic object that has been causing nothing but problems for the Klingon ship IKC EpsonCanon. What began as one object has turned into forty-seven similar objects in only one hour. The objects are draining power from the warp core at a rate that will quickly disable the Klingon vessel. The objects are not known lifeforms; they look very different from any known microscopic entities. Are they alive? If so, why? And what should be done with them?

E-mail your answers to Mark Wilson - science-tutor@star-fleet.com.